Automotive and Electrification represent a significant advancement in automotive technology, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. Powered by electricity stored in batteries, Electric Vehicles (EVs) produce zero tailpipe emissions, which significantly reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, EVs often feature lower operating and maintenance costs due to fewer moving parts. As renewable energy sources like solar and wind become more integrated into the grid, the environmental benefits of EVs will further increase, making them a pivotal component of a sustainable future in transportation. Automotive and Electrification refers to the integration of electric powertrains and components into vehicles – both EVs and Hybrid Vehicles. A hybrid powertrain integrates both internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor to achieve improved fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and enhanced vehicle performance. Their powertrains come in various configurations, including mild hybrids, full hybrids, and plug-in hybrids, each with differing levels of electrification and complexity. In this article we look prominently into Automotive and Electrification, EVs, the power supply system and associated electronics.

EV Architecture

As the automotive industry moves towards electrification, understanding EV architecture is essential for grasping how these vehicles are designed to meet the demands of modern transportation, offering a cleaner, smarter, and more efficient driving experience. The core components of EV architecture include the electric motor, battery pack, power electronics, thermal management system and transmission system. The EV architecture also encompasses advanced software and control systems, which enhance vehicle performance, safety, and connectivity.

Source: eTechnophiles.com

The electric motor, often an AC induction or permanent magnet motor, converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical energy to drive the wheels. The battery pack, typically composed of lithium-ion cells, stores the electrical energy required to power the vehicle. Power electronics, such as inverters and converters, manage the flow of electricity between the battery, motor, and other vehicle systems. The transmission system in EVs is generally simpler, often using a single-speed gearbox due to the wide torque range of electric motors. Additional elements like thermal management systems ensure optimal operating temperatures for the battery and motor, enhancing performance and longevity.

Key Components in Automotive and Electrification

Electric Vehicles (EVs) integrate various electronic components to ensure efficient performance, safety, and comfort. At the core of an EV is the battery pack, which stores the electrical energy required to power the vehicle’s electric motor. Automotive and Electrification, particularly the power supply architecture, is designed to manage and distribute electrical energy efficiently across various vehicle systems, converting DC to AC power. This includes Electronic Control Unit (ECU), Battery Management System (BMS), On-Board Charger (OBC), DC-DC converter, and more. The architecture is designed with modularity, redundancy, and advanced control algorithms to enhance reliability, efficiency, and adaptability to future innovations like wireless charging and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) capabilities. Let’s look at the key components of an EV electrification and power supply architecture:

Electronic Control Unit (ECU): The Electronic Control Unit acts as a central control and coordination hub for ECUs of many subsystems including Engine control Unit, Battery Management System, Transmission Control, ABS, Electronic stability Control, etc. ECU utilize high-level commands and interfaces such as FSI (Fast Serial Interface), CAN, and LIN for communication between subsystems. Each subsystem contains MCU-powered application-specific control units responsible for process, control, and communication.

Battery Management System (BMS): The Battery Management System monitors and manages battery pack parameters including voltage, current, temperature, state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH). It employs coulomb counter circuits for precise charge estimation, ensuring safe operation by regulating charging and discharging cycles using active or passive cell balancing techniques.

Charging Distribution Unit: This system provides switchover between single-phase and three-phase charging through the onboard charger to DC fast and supercharging. It utilizes a contactor-based switchover design for high power transfer, incorporating high-performance contactor drive circuits (analog design) for fast response and quick isolation.

On-Board Charger (OBC): The On-Board Charger converts AC power from the grid to DC power to charge the battery, with an AC to DC stage that includes Power Factor Correction (PFC) and a DC-to-DC stage for traction battery compatibility. It supports bi-directional power transfer for Vehicle to Grid (V2G) applications and must accommodate various charging standards and power levels up to 22kW.

Traction Battery Pack: The EV traction battery is a rechargeable energy storage system that supplies power to the electric motor very quickly, providing high performance and rapid acceleration. Leading battery technologies include Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Phosphate cell chemistry.

Traction Inverter: This component converts DC power from the traction battery to AC power for the electric motor. It must be highly efficient and capable of handling high power levels, utilizing high-power H-Bridge circuits with SiC MOSFETs and/or insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) with high-precision gate driver circuitry for precise power flow to and from the electric motor.

Motor Control: The motor controller regulates the electric motor’s power delivery based on accelerator pedal input, ensuring precise control over speed and torque. It uses advanced power electronics to modulate electrical energy from the battery and microcontrollers to execute real-time performance adjustments through complex algorithms. Sensors, including position, current, and temperature sensors, provide continuous feedback, enabling optimal efficiency, performance, and thermal management. The controller also integrates fault detection and diagnostics to enhance reliability and safety, ensuring smooth, responsive, and efficient power delivery essential for the EV’s performance and drivability.

Traction Electric Motor/Generator: The main propulsion device in an electric car, the traction electric motor/generator converts electrical energy from the traction battery into mechanical energy. Commonly used systems include three-phase induction motors and DC motor systems, with resolver-based analog designs for closed-loop feedback control.

Auxiliary DC-DC Converter: This converter steps down the high-voltage battery power to lower voltages for auxiliary systems, such as 12V, 24V, and 48V. It is a key source for supplying power to vehicle electronics, lighting, infotainment systems, and other electrical systems, incorporating both isolated and non-isolated power supplies for different applications.

Signal Conditioning Circuitry: This circuitry collects data from multiple sensors and transmits it to various nodes throughout the system. Discrete analog solutions are implemented to ensure minimal data loss during transmission over longer distances.

Circuit Protection System: The circuit protection system provides path selection to different subsystems within the auxiliary power supply architecture. It includes electronically controlled fuses and protection mechanisms for real-time monitoring of current, voltage, and temperature, with fault detection and fuse actuation. Protection circuits also incorporate EMI/EMC filter designs compliant with ISO standards ISO 7637-2 and ISO 16750-2.

Vehicle Control Unit (VCU): The Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) in an EV is a centralized control system that coordinates the operation of various subsystems, such as the Battery Management System (BMS), motor controller, and thermal management system. It utilizes microcontrollers to execute complex software algorithms that manage and optimize the performance of these subsystems. Communication interfaces facilitate data exchange between the VCU and other vehicle components, ensuring seamless integration and coordination. By processing real-time data from various sensors and control units, the VCU enhances the overall efficiency, safety, and performance of the EV, providing a cohesive and responsive driving experience.

Design Requirements for Automotive and Electrification

Designing a power supply for an electric vehicle (EV) involves several key requirements to ensure performance, efficiency, and safety.

Electrical Requirements: Typical battery pack voltages range from 150V to 800V, with some high-performance models reaching up to 1000V. Low voltage system architectures (12V, 24V, or 48V) are used for auxiliary functions. The power supply must handle high currents, especially during acceleration (1100A and above) and fast charging. Components must be rated for peak current demands. High efficiency is critical to maximize the range and performance of the EV.

Thermal Management: Thermal management in EV systems is crucial for ensuring the optimal performance, safety, and longevity of key components such as battery packs, electric motors, and power electronics. Efficient thermal management systems utilize a combination of air and liquid cooling methods to maintain appropriate temperatures, preventing overheating and thermal degradation. Liquid cooling is particularly effective for high-performance applications, providing uniform temperature control. Additionally, advanced materials like thermal interface materials and phase change materials enhance heat dissipation. Integrated thermal management systems coordinate the cooling of batteries, motors, power electronics, and cabin climate control through sophisticated software. They use sophisticated software for real-time optimization based on driving conditions and ambient temperature.

Battery Cooling and Heating: This maintains optimal battery temperature to ensure efficiency, safety, and longevity. It utilizes air cooling, liquid cooling, and refrigerant cooling systems, and includes heating systems in cold climates to maintain performance.

Electric Motor and Power Electronics Cooling: Liquid cooling systems dissipate heat generated during operation. Heat sinks, thermal interface materials, and active cooling are used to manage heat in components like inverters and converters.

Safety and Protection: Overcurrent protection involves fuses, circuit breakers, and electronic protection circuits to prevent damage from overcurrent conditions. Overvoltage and under voltage protection safeguard components from voltage spikes and drops, ensuring stable operation. Electrical isolation between high-voltage and low-voltage systems is essential to prevent accidental shock and ensure safety. Fault detection and management systems detect and respond to faults, including short circuits, thermal runaway, and component failures. An emergency mode power supply and switchover systems provide control over the EV in fault events.

Environmental and Mechanical Considerations: Components must withstand the mechanical stresses of automotive environments, complying with standards such as ISO 16750-3 for mechanical loads. Waterproofing and dustproofing ensure components meet IP67 or higher ratings for protection against dust and water ingress. Designing for electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) prevents interference with other electronic systems, complying with standards like CISPR 25 and ISO 11452.

Automotive Standards for Automotive and Electrification

Several standards guide the design and safety of Automotive and Electrification in electric vehicles. These standards ensure interoperability, safety, and performance consistency across different EV models.

International Standards

ISO 26262: Functional Safety for Road Vehicles

ISO 26262 focuses on the safety of electrical and electronic systems within road vehicles. It introduces the Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL), a risk classification system defined by the standard for the functional safety of road vehicles. The standard emphasizes risk assessment and mitigation strategies throughout the vehicle lifecycle to ensure safety.

IEC 61851: Electric Vehicle Conductive Charging System

IEC 61851 specifies the general requirements for conductive charging systems for electric vehicles. It covers various aspects such as charging modes, communication protocols, and safety requirements to ensure reliable and safe operation during the charging process.

IEC 62196: Plugs, Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Connectors, and Vehicle Inlets

IEC 62196 defines the requirements for connectors and inlets used for conductive charging of electric vehicles. This standard ensures compatibility and safety in the physical connections between the charging infrastructure & the vehicle.
Regional Standards

SAE J3400: North American Charging Standard (NACS)

SAE J3400, an EV charging connector system developed by Tesla Inc., supports both AC charging and DC fast/supercharging. This standard is tailored to meet the specific requirements of the North American market, providing a unified approach to EV charging.

SAE J1772: Combined Charging System (CCS)

SAE J1772 specifies the physical, electrical, and performance requirements for the charging coupler. Widely adopted in Europe and Japan, this standard ensures compatibility and performance across different regions, facilitating a seamless charging experience for EV users.

GB/T 20234: Connection Set for Conductive Charging of Electric Vehicles

GB/T 20234 is China’s standard for EV charging connectors, focusing on safety and compatibility. This standard ensures that EV charging infrastructure in China meets stringent safety requirements and is compatible with various EV models.

CHAdeMO: Quick Charging Standard for Electric Vehicles

CHAdeMO defines the requirements for high-power DC fast charging. This standard is used internationally to provide a reliable and efficient method for quickly charging electric vehicles, ensuring high performance and compatibility across different EV models.

Other Relevant Standards

ISO 15118: Road Vehicles – Vehicle-to-Grid Communication Interface

ISO 15118 specifies the communication interface between electric vehicles and the electric grid. This standard supports the integration of EVs into the grid, enabling functions such as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communication, which allows EVs to return stored energy to the grid.

ISO 21434: Road Vehicles – Cybersecurity Engineering

ISO 21434 addresses the cybersecurity aspects of automotive systems, which is crucial for modern electric vehicles with interconnected systems. This standard provides guidelines to ensure the protection of EVs from cyber threats, ensuring the safety and security of both the vehicle and its occupants.

Design Best Practices

Designing efficient and robust Automotive Electrification and power supply systems is crucial for ensuring the performance, safety, and reliability of modern EVs. A holistic approach is necessary to ensure that EVs meet the demands of modern transportation, providing users with a seamless and dependable driving experience.

Modular Design

Modular design stands as a foundation of effective EV engineering, offering advantages in upgrades, maintenance, and scalability. By compartmentalizing components, this approach facilitates the seamless replacement of individual modules without necessitating extensive system overhauls. Such flexibility ensures streamlined maintenance procedures and enables future-proofing against evolving technological advancements.

Optimized Battery Management System (BMS)

An optimized Battery Management System (BMS) is essential for monitoring and managing the battery pack. High-precision sensors should be used to monitor voltage, current, and temperature of individual cells as well as the entire pack. Implementing active or passive cell balancing maintains uniform charge levels across cells, enhancing battery life and performance. Additionally, incorporating multiple layers of safety protocols and redundant circuits helps detect and mitigate overcharge, over-discharge, and thermal runaway scenarios.

Efficient Power Electronics

Power electronics, which convert and control the flow of electrical energy in an EV, require the use of high-efficiency DC-DC converters and inverters to minimize energy losses. Effective thermal management systems should be designed to dissipate heat generated by power electronics, ensuring longevity and reliability. Ensuring that electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards are met is crucial to prevent disruptions to vehicle electronics.

Reliable Charging Systems

Designing charging systems that support various charging standards, such as CCS, CHAdeMO, and Tesla Supercharger, ensures broader compatibility. Fast-charging capabilities should be implemented while ensuring that the battery’s health and safety are not compromised. Integrating smart charging features optimizes charging time and cost and incorporating technologies like vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology allows energy flow back to the grid.

Robust Electrical Architecture

The electrical architecture interconnects all the electrical and electronic components in an EV. Designing redundant wiring and communication pathways ensures reliability in case of a single point of failure. Using a modular approach facilitates ease of maintenance and scalability, allowing for future upgrades and component replacements. Implementing strict safety protocols and insulation for high-voltage components protects users and service personnel.

Advanced Thermal Management

Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining optimal operating temperatures in EVs. Integrated cooling systems for the battery pack, power electronics, and electric motor ensure efficient heat dissipation. Incorporating phase-change materials (PCMs) for passive thermal management absorbs excess heat during peak load conditions ensuring Active cooling controls should adjust cooling intensity based on real-time thermal data.

Safety and Redundancy

Systems should be designed with multiple layers of safety, including hardware and software-based protections. Incorporating and maintaining fail-safe mechanisms ensure vehicle control and safety during component failures. Equipping the vehicle with emergency isolation systems disconnects the battery during accidents or critical faults minimizing the risks.

Software Integration

Software plays a crucial role in managing EV systems. Developing software capable of real-time monitoring and diagnostics of all critical systems is essential. Enabling over-the-air (OTA) updates keeps the vehicle software current with the latest features and security patches. Implementing robust cybersecurity measures protects against potential hacking and unauthorized access.

Real-Time Monitoring

Real-time monitoring systems play a pivotal role in pre-emptively detecting and addressing issues within EV systems. Monitoring key parameters—such as Battery Health, Voltage, Current, and Temperature—in real-time allows for swift intervention in the event of anomalies, thereby averting potential system failures. Leveraging communication protocols like CAN bus, LIN bus, and Ethernet facilitates efficient data exchange for comprehensive monitoring and analysis.

Advanced Control Algorithms

The utilization of advanced control algorithms like BMS Algorithms, Power Electronics Control, Energy Management Systems, and Charging Control Algorithms among others represents another cornerstone of EV engineering. These algorithms govern power flow management, efficiency optimization, and load balancing, thereby enhancing overall system performance. Features like Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for solar-assisted EVs and regenerative braking systems exemplify the sophistication and efficacy of advanced control algorithms in modern EV design.

Future Trends in Automotive and Electrification

The future of Automotive Electrification in electric vehicle (EV) design is poised to witness significant advancements. From cutting-edge battery technologies to sophisticated power electronics and integrated vehicle systems, these innovations will drive the next generation of electric vehicles. As these technologies mature, they will not only enhance the performance and reliability of EVs but also make them more accessible and sustainable, paving the way for a cleaner and more efficient transportation ecosystem.

Advanced Battery Technologies

Future advancements are expected to focus on increasing energy density, reducing costs, and improving longevity. Key developments include solid-state batteries, which promise higher energy densities and improved safety by replacing liquid electrolytes with solid ones, leading to longer ranges and faster charging times. Additionally, silicon anode batteries, utilizing silicon in place of graphite anodes, can significantly increase capacity, offering more energy storage per unit weight. Improved battery recycling processes and repurposing batteries for secondary applications, such as energy storage systems, will also enhance sustainability.

Enhanced Battery Management Systems (BMS)

Future BMS will integrate more sophisticated algorithms and AI-driven analytics to optimize battery performance and lifespan. Enhancements include predictive maintenance, which utilizes machine learning to predict and prevent potential failures, reducing downtime and maintenance costs. Adaptive charging algorithms, employing smart charging strategies that adjust based on battery health, user habits, and grid conditions, will also maximize efficiency and lifespan.

Innovative Power Electronics

Advancements in power electronics are critical for improving the efficiency and reliability of power conversion in EVs. Future trends include wide bandgap semiconductors, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), which offer superior efficiency and thermal performance compared to traditional silicon-based devices, enabling more compact and efficient power electronics. Additionally, the development of scalable and modular inverter designs will allow for easy adaptation to different vehicle platforms and power levels.

Integrated Vehicle Systems

The integration of various vehicle systems will play a crucial role in future EV design, enhancing overall efficiency and performance. Key areas include unified thermal management, which involves integrated systems that manage the thermal loads of batteries, power electronics, and the cabin environment more efficiently. Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication will enable EVs to communicate with the grid, infrastructure, and other vehicles to optimize energy use, traffic management, and safety.

Advanced Charging Solutions

Future EVs will benefit from faster, more convenient, and more efficient charging solutions. Key innovations include ultra-fast charging technologies capable of delivering significant power in a short time, reducing charging times to minutes rather than hours. Wireless charging systems will provide seamless and convenient energy transfer without the need for physical connectors. Furthermore, smart grid integration will optimize charging based on real-time grid conditions and renewable energy availability, supporting grid stability and reducing costs.

Autonomous Driving and Electrification

The convergence of autonomous driving technologies with EV electrification will drive new design considerations and opportunities. Autonomous systems can optimize driving patterns for energy efficiency, reducing overall consumption. Integration with dynamic wireless charging infrastructure will allow EVs to charge while in motion on specially equipped roads.

Conclusion

EVs are at the forefront of a transformative shift in the automotive electronics industry, heralding a new era of sustainable, efficient, and technologically advanced transportation. These systems, encompassing electric propulsion, battery technology, power electronics, and smart control mechanisms, are redefining vehicle performance and environmental impact. As technological advancements continue to enhance the capabilities and affordability of electric vehicles, they promise to address the pressing challenges of climate change, air pollution, and energy security.

The evolution of EVs and efficient Automotive and Electrification mechanisms not only represents a leap forward in automotive engineering but also signifies a commitment to a cleaner, greener future. Embracing these systems is crucial for driving innovation, fostering economic growth, and achieving a sustainable mobility ecosystem for generations to come. To know more about Mistral’s Automotive Electrification and Power Electronics offerings and related design services, please visit Automotive Electronics and Electrification or write to speak to a Technical Expert!

The inception of Radar technology dates back to the late 1880s, yet it wasn’t until the 1920s that the true potential of this revolutionary system began to unfold. With the rise of airplanes in military operations, the necessity for detecting aircraft from considerable distances became imperative for defense forces. The United States Naval Research Laboratory showcased the first rudimentary Radar system in 1922, marking the initial steps towards a transformative era in surveillance and detection capabilities.

By the early 1930s, major global powers including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy, Japan, and the Netherlands were actively engaged in the development of Radar systems for military applications. During World War II, these systems witnessed critical utilization and underwent significant technological advancements. The following decades, especially the 1950s and 1960s, saw significant advancements in radar technology, with many nations adopting it to modernize their military forces.

Today, Radar systems have transcended their military origins to become an indispensable tool across diverse sectors and applications. From enhancing military surveillance capabilities, meteorology, to advanced automotive and industrial safety, Radar technology’s influence permeates various facets of modern life.

In this article, we look into the rich history, innovative applications, and evolving landscape of Radar systems, highlighting their significance and ever-expanding potential.

What is a Radar System?

RADAR, the acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging System, is an electromagnetic sensor that is used for detecting, tracking, locating, and identifying various objects at considerable distances. It functions by emitting electromagnetic energy towards objects, often called targets, and then analyzing the energy that is reflected from them.

Besides tracking the velocity and distance of the object, Radar can also determine the shape and size of the target. Radar systems, unlike optical and infrared sensing devices, can detect distant objects even in adverse weather conditions while precisely determining their range, speed, and direction of movement.

Radar devices operate across a diverse spectrum of frequencies, each tailored to specific applications due to their unique physical properties. For instance, air surveillance and long-range detection and penetration applications fall within lower frequencies (30 to 300MHz). Weather Radar, operating in the C-band (4 to 8 GHz), is tailored for high resolution and penetration. Similarly, applications demanding higher resolution and penetration capabilities often utilizes the X-band (8 to 12 GHz).

Industrial Radars use 60-64GHz frequency range, offering fine resolution but shorter ranges. Automotive systems predominantly utilize 76 to 81 GHz frequency within W Band, while modern level measurement Radars leverage 80 GHz frequency band. Each band balances range, resolution, and penetration for specialized radar needs.

The hardware and software components of radar systems differ based on the operating frequency, type (handheld, ground-based, vehicle-mounted, ship-mounted, or airborne), and intended application.

How does a Radar system work?

A Radar system typically comprises of a transmitter generating electromagnetic signals emitted into space through an antenna. Upon encountering an object, the signal reflects in various directions. Subsequently, the Radar antenna receives these reflected signals, which are then transmitted to the receiver and Signal Processing Engine for processing and determining the object’s geospatial characteristics.

The range/distance of the object is determined by calculating the time taken for the signal to complete a round trip from the RADAR to the target and back. Additionally, the object’s position is assessed in terms of angle, measured from the direction of the maximum amplitude of the echo signal relative to which the antenna points. Furthermore, the Doppler Effect is utilized to measure the location and velocity of moving objects.

The fundamental components of the system include:

• Transmitter: This can take the form of a power amplifier, such as a Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube, or a power oscillator like a Magnetron. The signal is initially generated using a waveform generator, amplified by a power amplifier, and transmitted into the atmosphere.
• Modulator: It toggles the transmitter on and off to generate the appropriate waveform for the transmitted pulse. It manages the timing and duration of the transmission to ensure accurate signal emission.
• Waveguides: Serving as transmission lines, waveguides facilitate the transmission of RADAR signals.
• Antenna: Antenna transmits pulses of radio waves. The antenna employed may be a parabolic reflector, planar array, or electronically steered phased array.
• Duplexer: Duplexer enables the antenna to function as both a transmitter and a receiver
• Receiver: This can be a superheterodyne receiver, or another type containing a processor to analyze and detect the signal.
• Threshold Decision: The receiver’s output is compared with a threshold to identify the presence of any object. If the output falls below the threshold, the assumption is made that it corresponds to noise.

Types of Radars

Radar systems can be categorized into different types based on their application, configuration, and scanning pattern. Some of the common types of Radar systems include:

Monostatic Radars

A monostatic Radar is a type of Radar system in which the transmitter and receiver share the same antenna or are co-located in close proximity. This configuration allows the Radar to transmit electromagnetic signals and receive echoes reflected from targets using the same antenna.

Monostatic Radars are commonly used in applications such as air traffic control, weather monitoring, surveillance, and military reconnaissance.

Bistatic Radar

Unlike monostatic Radars with transmitter and receiver at the same location, bistatic Radar Systems have the transmitter and receiver at different locations. Typically, the distance between the transmitter and receiver is equivalent to the expected distance from the estimated object.

Bistatic Radar system proves particularly advantageous in scenarios where the reflected energy from the target is minimal—such as long-range Radar and weather Radar. They are also valuable for military applications, especially for detecting targets employing stealth technology.

Monopulse Radar

This is an advanced Radar system capable of simultaneously determining the range (distance) and angle of a target from the transceiver within a single pulse. Primarily employed for target angle measurement and tracking purposes, Monopulse Radar finds extensive usage in air traffic control.

Among the various types of monopulse Radar, Conical Radar is particularly prevalent, utilizing the return signals from two distinct paths to gauge the target’s position. However, Monopulse Radar System offers advantages over conical scanning Radar systems, as it mitigates issues associated with rapid fluctuations in signal strength.

Doppler Radar System

Doppler Radar system utilizes the Doppler effect to obtain the velocity data of distant objects. The system sends out a microwave signal toward the target object and then analyzes how the returned signal’s motion has changed.

By analyzing these frequency shifts, Doppler Radar can determine the velocity of the moving objects. This also helps in measuring how fast things are moving in different directions. They are used in satellite applications, aviation, meteorology, radiology, healthcare, military applications, and more.

Passive Radar

Passive Radar is a type of Radar system that detects and tracks targets by receiving and analyzing signals emitted from sources in the surrounding environment. These sources include communication signals and commercial broadcasts.

This type of Radar system does not have a dedicated transmitter. However, the system receives signals from various transmitters in the environment and measures the time difference of reception between the direct signals from the source and the signals reflected off surrounding objects.

Pulsed Radar

A Pulsed Radar system transmits powerful, high-frequency pulses at a target object, then pauses to receive the reflected signal from the object before sending another pulse. The system’s range and resolution are determined by the pulse repetition frequency, with its operation utilizing the Doppler shift method.

The concept behind Radar’s detection of moving objects via the Doppler shift relies on the differentiation between reflected signals from stationary and moving objects. Reflected signals from stationary objects remain in the same phase and are thus nullified, whereas those from moving objects undergo phase changes.

Pulsed Radar systems are categorized into two types based on this principle.

Pulse-Doppler

To avoid ambiguities in the Doppler effect, Pulse-Doppler emits pulses at a high repetition frequency. The transmitted and received signals are combined in a detector to extract the Doppler shift, and the resulting difference signal is then passed through a Doppler filter to eliminate unwanted noise signals.

Moving Target Indicator

To mitigate range ambiguities, the system emits pulses at a low repetition frequency. In an MTI RADAR configuration, the received reflected signals from the object are directed to the mixer, where they are fused with the signal from a stable local oscillator (STALO) to produce the IF signal.

Continuous Wave Radar

A Continuous Wave (CW) Radar operates by transmitting and receiving high-frequency signals continuously.  It relies on the Doppler frequency shift generated by moving targets to distinguish the weaker echo signal from the stronger transmitted signal. While a basic CW Radar can detect targets and ascertain their radial velocity through the Doppler frequency shift, determining the target’s range necessitates a more complex waveform.

Various federal agencies employ CW Radar across a spectrum of applications, including target tracking, weapons fire control, and vehicle speed detection.

Application and Uses of Radar Systems

Radar has a wide range of applications across different fields. Some notable applications are given below:

Military

Radar finds numerous usages in military operations.

• They are utilized for target detection, recognition, and weapon control in air defense and surveillance.
• Radars track the trajectory of outgoing projectiles to guide and enhance the precision of the weapon.
• Radars detect and locate enemy Radar/Military installations, jam enemy Radar signals, and provide early warning to enhance situational awareness and strategic planning.
• Radars are integral components of Ballistic Missile Defense.

 Air Traffic Control

Radars play a critical role in ensuring the safe and efficient management of air traffic within a specific airspace:

• Radars facilitate accurate aircraft detection and tracking – position, altitude, speed, and direction of aircraft in real-time, enabling air traffic controllers to maintain safe separation distances between aircraft and to provide appropriate instructions to pilots.
• Modern radar systems used in air traffic control have weather monitoring capabilities, allowing controllers to detect and track weather phenomena such as thunderstorms, fog, and precipitation and instruct Pilots accordingly.
• Radars provide surface surveillance, allowing controllers to monitor the movements of aircraft, vehicles, and personnel on the airport’s runways, taxiways, and aprons.

Space Missions

• Guide space vehicles to its target location; secure the landing and docking of spacecraft.
• Observe and study planetary systems within our solar system and beyond.
• Detect and track satellites orbiting in space.
• Monitoring the presence of meteors and their and trajectory.

Remote Sensing

• Radar technology finds applications in observing planetary positions, monitoring sea ice for navigation planning, and ensuring clear routes for ships. They are also utilized to detect atmospheric weather conditions.
• Radars aid in efficient terrain mapping and creating topography models.
• Aids in natural disaster monitoring and management.
• Facilitates oceanography and maritime surveillance.

Smart City Application

• Radar Technology aids traffic management by detecting congestion and optimizing signal timings.
• Enhances pedestrian safety through monitoring crosswalks and alerting drivers to potential hazards.
• Assists in waste management by monitoring fill levels in bins, optimizing collection routes, and reducing operational costs.

Navigation

Aircraft: In aviation, aircraft often feature radar devices, such as Ground surveillance radar and terrain avoidance radar that serve various functions such as detecting nearby aircraft or obstacles, providing weather updates, and delivering precise altitude measurements. These advancements enable aircraft to clear potential obstacles and ensure safe navigation.

Ships: Ships are navigated with the aid of high-resolution Radars positioned along the shores. Radars on ships play a crucial role in aiding navigation and enhancing safety during adverse weather conditions by detecting other vessels, obstacles, and landmasses even when visibility is reduced.

Mining and Geophysical applications

In the mining and geophysical exploration sectors, Radars are employed to detect minerals and other subsurface resources. This data aids in assessing the feasibility of resource extraction and in directing drilling and excavation activities.

• Radars are utilized for terrain mapping, monitoring land subsidence, detecting changes in geological structures, and identifying potential mineral.
• Ground-Penetrating Radar is also commonly used in both mining and geophysical exploration. It is utilized to detect underground structures, geological formations, ore bodies, and potential hazards such as voids or sinkholes.

Automotive Applications

Radar is a vital technology within the safety framework of modern vehicles. Automotive Radars serve as essential sensors in advanced driver-assistance systems. They are integral to functions such as adaptive cruise control, pedestrian detection, collision avoidance, blind spot detection, lane change assistance, parking assistance, auto-emergency braking and driver monitoring among others.

Industrial Applications

In industrial contexts, radar technology serves multiple functions vital to safety and efficiency.

• Radar sensors are deployed for precise level measurement in tanks and silos, ensuring accurate inventory management across industries like chemical processing and food production.
• They also contribute to safe zone monitoring, collision avoidance by detecting obstacles and personnel movement in areas with hostile environments or extreme temperatures where human presence is not viable.
• They aid asset tracking and inventory optimization in warehouses, optimizes manufacturing processes through real-time monitoring and enhances security by providing continuous surveillance of critical infrastructure.

Conclusion

Radar systems stand as a testament to the remarkable progress of human ingenuity and innovation. From their inception in the early 20th century to their widespread presence in contemporary society, Radar technology has continuously evolved to meet the ever-changing demands of modern life. Through their pivotal roles in defense, navigation, weather forecasting, and automotive safety, Radar systems have not only revolutionized how we perceive and interact with our environment but have also laid the foundation for future technological advancements.

As we look toward the future, the trajectory of Radar technology appears boundless. With emerging technologies and novel applications on the horizon, Radar systems are poised to further expand their reach and impact across diverse sectors. Whether it’s pioneering advancements in autonomous vehicles, enhancing space exploration capabilities, or revolutionizing environmental monitoring, Radar systems will continue to drive innovation, shape our technological landscape, and propel humanity toward new frontiers of discovery and possibility.

Autonomous machines, robotics and artificial intelligence have been transforming daily life, making it more convenient, safe and efficient. These technologies are being applied to multiple applications in domains such as industrial, automotive, healthcare, smart city, smart buildings, and entertainment among others. The ever-evolving technology landscape and the increasing need for real-time data processing and inference at the edge is encouraging SoC/GPU manufacturers to build powerful edge computing devices that can run modern Deep Learning (DL) workloads. NVIDIA Jetson System on Modules (SoMs) – namely NVIDIA Jetson Nano, NVIDIA Jetson TX2 NX and NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX are embedded AI computing platforms designed to accelerate edge AI product lifecycle. These high-performance, low-power compute engines are built to run complex computer vision, robotics, and other low-power applications. In addition, NVIDIA offers CUDA-X libraries, a set of highly optimized, GPU-accelerated libraries. CUDA-X offers a robust programming environment that works seamlessly with all Jetson SoMs, enabling customers to seamlessly use their application across various Jetson Platforms.

Advantages of NVIDIA Jetson Platform

Versatile Hardware – The NVIDIA Jetson portfolio provides a wide range of high-performance, low-power system on modules, that feature multi-core ARM cores, NVIDIA GPU, AI computational performance up to 275 TOPS and a host of high-speed interfaces, ideal for complex DL pipelines.

Unified Software offers Ease of Development – NVIDIA Jetson System on modules and Development Kits are supported by a unified software architecture that helps developers to expand or enhance their product portfolio on different Jetson modules without further coding. This unified approach helps enterprises to create product portfolios with a significant return on investment.

Cloud Native Support for Scalable Deployments – Cloud-native technologies and workflows like orchestration and containerization are supported by all NVIDIA Jetson platforms, which accelerate edge AI product development, agile deployment, and management throughout the product lifecycle. Frequent updates and constant upkeeps are imperative to rapidly improve AI efficiency.

Here’s a sneak peek of the hardware capabilities of various Jetson Modules:

NVIDIA Jetson AGX Orin

The NVIDIA Jetson AGX Orin is the latest incorporation from NVIDIA among all Jetson Modules. This SoM is one of the most powerful embedded processors currently in market, with up to 275 TOPs performance. The Jetson AGX Orin offers a giant leap forward in Edge AI and robotics. Jetson AGX Orin offers 8x performance over Jetson AGX Xavier with configurable power between 15W and 50W, making it ideal for autonomous machines and advanced robots. It will also help developers to deploy complex and large AI models to solve problems such as 3D perception, natural language understanding, and multi sensor fusion. This SoM supports multiple concurrent AI inference pipelines with onboard 64GB eMMC, 204 GB/s of memory bandwidth, and high-speed interface support for multiple sensors.

NVIDIA Jetson Orin NX

The NVIDIA Jetson Orin NX provides high-speed interface support for multiple sensors, offers twice the CUDA cores, 5x performance of NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX and 3X the performance of Jetson AGX Xavier for power-efficient autonomous machines. This module offers up to 100 TOPS of AI performance, 1024-core NVIDIA Ampere architecture GPU with 32 Tensor Cores, power configurable between 10W and 25W, supports external NVMe, shares the form factor compatibility with NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX, and can give a tremendous performance in an amazingly compact package.

NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano

With the launch of the new NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano SoM, NVIDIA Jetson is setting a new standard for entry-level edge AI and robotics. Orin Nano comes in two variants, and it can deliver up to 80x the performance over the previous generation, up to 40 TOPS of AI performance, and comes with 5W and up to 15W power options. Jetson Orin Nano includes a video decode engine, 6-core Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU, ISP, audio processing engine, video image compositor, and video input block. This new SoM series also features up to 1024-core NVIDIA Ampere architecture GPU with 32 Tensor cores, supports FP16 and Int 8, and comes with 4GB and 8GB. This SoM comes with a strong Ecosystem, better software support, enhanced encoding capabilities, and memory bandwidth and supports external NVME for data storage directly as it has no eMMC.

NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier

The NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier is a power-efficient module designed for autonomous machines that delivers up to 32 TOPS of AI performance. In the NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier modules, the  hardware acceleration for the entire AI pipeline enables developers to come up with the latest AI applications. The NVIDIA Jetson AGX Xavier also provides an extended temperature range, vibration and shock specifications, making it one of the best choices for safety-certified and industrial-grade products. This SoM comes with NVIDIA Volta architecture GPU with 512 CUDA cores, 8-core NVIDIA Carmel Armv8.2 64-bit CPU and support up to 6 CSI cameras in addition to the host of the display, connectivity and networking interfaces.

NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX

The NVIDIA Jetson Xavier NX is a small form-factor module, in the size of a credit card that offers up to 21 TOPs of accelerated AI computing. This module can process data from various high-resolution sensors and run multiple advanced neural networks in parallel, which is critical to modern embedded systems. The 384-core NVIDIA Volta™ GPU with 48 Tensor Cores offers high computing power for compact, intelligent machines like autonomous drones and portable medical devices. The module comes with 6-core NVIDIA Carmel ARMv8.2 CPU, dual DLA engines, 8 GB memory, 6 CSI camera and support a host of display, connectivity, and networking interfaces.

NVIDIA Jetson TX2 NX

The NVIDIA Jetson TX2 NX is a power-efficient (7.5W) embedded AI computing device that offers up to 2.5x the performance of Jetson Nano. The NVIDIA Jetson TX2 NX module features a variety of standard hardware interfaces that makes it ideal for designing a wide range of small form-factor products that run advanced machine learning applications. The NVIDIA Jetson TX2 NX modules integrate NVIDIA Pascal™ GPU architecture with 256 NVIDIA CUDA cores, dual-Core NVIDIA Denver 2 64-Bit CPU, 8GB 128-bit LPDDR4 memory, and 32GB eMMC 5.1 storage. In addition, TX2 offers USB 3.0 Type A, USB 2.0 Micro USB (supports recovery and host mode), HDMI, M.2 Key E, PCI-E x4, Gigabit Ethernet, full-size SD, SATA Data and Power, GPIOs, I2C, I2S, SPI, CAN, TTL UART with flow control, display expansion header, and camera expansion header.

NVIDIA Jetson Nano

The NVIDIA Jetson Nano is a small, power-efficient, high-performance AI computing device to run AI applications, process data from high-resolution sensors and run multiple neural networks in parallel. NVIDIA Jetson Nano module and nvidia jetson nano developer kit is an ideal entry-level option to add advanced capabilities to embedded products and elementary solutions like intelligent gateways or entry-level NVRs. The NVIDIA Jetson Nano has an integrated 128-core Maxwell GPU, quad-core ARM A57 64-bit CPU, 4GB LPDDR4 memory, and support for MIPI CSI-2 and PCIe Gen2 high-speed I/O.NVIDIA

NVIDIA Jetson Modules _ Spec Comparison

Conclusion

The NVIDIA Jetson System on Modules are power-performance-optimized edge devices that can
transform every industry, including healthcare, retail, manufacturing, transportation, construction, logistics, agriculture, robotics, surveillance, and more. AI-based embedded product companies and developers are using NVIDIA Jetson SoMs to enhance and accelerate product development, demonstrating how cutting-edge technologies can facilitate new levels of success every day. Mistral is a Member of the NVIDIA Partner Network, and our solutions facilitate accelerated product development, prototyping and reduce time to market. Our team has unparalleled expertise and design competency in offering custom Carrier Boards, NVIDIA jetson nano developer kit and similar Development Platforms and Application Boards based on Jetson System on Modules. Mistral also offers feature-rich, performance-oriented off-the-shelf nvidia jetson nano developer kit, Carrier Boards and AI-Sensor Fusion platforms compatible with the Jetson Nano, Jetson Xavier NX and Jetson TX2 NX SoMs. To know more, please visit www.mistralsolutions.com/neuron. Stay tuned for the second part of the blog that features various use cases of Jetson platforms!

IoT applications greatly rely on wireless connectivity to communicate with IoT gateways and other devices in the ecosystem, especially applications wherein wired connectivity is practically impossible. This connectivity is enabled by a range of antennas that support various types of networks. Over the past decade, IoT platforms have tremendously evolved to shrink in size and incorporate advanced wireless technologies. These developments have made a huge impact in the evolution of antenna technologies and IoT Antenna Design, bringing out ultra-compact antennas of high efficiency and performance. Embedding multiple antennas in high-performance, small form-factor IoT designs has become a standard requirement, creating significant challenges to IoT product developers. Some of the popular wireless technologies used in IoT applications are Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, WLAN and ZigBee, which operate in the frequency band of 2.4GHz to 5GHz. These wireless standards are capable of handling high data rates over short distances. Wireless standards such as LoRa (operates in RF bands of 169 MHz to 915MHz) and SigFox (operate in RF bands of 868MHz to 928MHz) are used in applications that need relatively longer range, and at much lower data rates.

The advent of LPWANs like NB-IoT that offer low bandwidth data connections and LTE Cat-M, higher bandwidth, high-throughput with low latency and battery use, are also making a large impact in IoT designs by offering a cost-effective solution. 5G, the fifth generation of wireless technology, is expected to further revolutionize the growth of IoT and related technologies. IoT antenna are specialized components designed to facilitate communication between IoT devices and networks. IoT antenna is integral to the performance and reliability of IoT systems, which are used in various applications, including smart homes, industrial automation, healthcare, agriculture, and more. In this blog, we look at a few commonly used Antenna technologies, their applications and a few key factors that influence the selection of Antenna for an IoT product design.

Antenna Technologies

This section briefly describes various types of IoT Antenna that are commonly employed in IoT devices.

Chip Antennas

Chip antennas are compact and have relatively low bandwidth. They perform better with large ground planes, which may add to challenges while integrating a board of high component density. Chip Antennas have a limited range, making them optimal for small IoT devices that use low-frequency bands such as, computers, satellite radios, GPS devices, etc.

Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are more economical as compared with other types of IoT antenna such as Chip and Whip. The size of wire antenna is inversely proportional to its frequency, i.e., the size of the antenna increases as frequency decreases, which may invite challenges in designs. Wire antennas are either fixed to the PCB over a ground plane or connected over a coaxial cable offering good RF performance. These Antennas are available in various patterns and shapes such as Dipole, Loop and Helix and are commonly used in connected cars, smart buildings solutions, etc.

Whip Antennas

Whip antennas are one of the best performing antenna and probably the priciest among commonly employed antennas. They are usually positioned outside the device enclosure, making a physical connection with the PCB over a coaxial connector. Whip antenna is a common type of monopole antenna, which is ideal for wireless connectivity in ISM, LoRa, LPWAN based applications. The whip antennas are ideal for designs that use multiple transceivers such as hand-held radios, routers, gateways walkie-talkies, Wi-Fi enabled devices, vehicles, etc.

Antenna on PCB

As the name indicates, Antenna on PCB (AoPCB) is the antenna or antenna pattern embedded on the PCB using modern fabrication technologies – typically copper traces on circuit boards. PCB antennas are cost-effective and offer great flexibility in designs as developers can incorporate the antenna design at an elementary level. One drawback of Antenna on PCB is that it uses space on the circuit board, which may bring in significant challenges in an ultra-compact or complex design with large number of sensors and components. This type of IoT antenna is ideal for USB dongles, automotive and robotics applications.

Factors influencing the selection of an Antenna

Several factors influence the selection of an antenna for an IoT design – frequency band, size, range, precision, the region of deployment, etc. Typically, the frequency band of IoT antenna fall in unlicensed ISM-bands (industrial, scientific, medical). Each IoT antenna is designed for a specific frequency band, keeping certain applications in mind. For example, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth may be a good choice for portable devices, wearables, gaming gadgets, IP cameras etc, whereas Industrial applications such as smart cities, Industry 4.0 and smart agriculture among others need to use LPWAN, LoRa, SigFox or NB-IoT. The antenna selected should aesthetically fit into the product packaging. A small size antenna, perfectly positioned, is more likely to offer optimal performance.

However, it must provide the intended coverage at the least possible consumption of power. At times, it is not only the size of the antenna that matters but also the antenna topology. The antenna topology influences the bandwidth, radiation pattern, gain and overall efficiency of the antenna. One question that might pop up in the reader’s mind would be, should one consider a standard off-the-shelf antenna or a custom-designed one! Off-the-shelf antennas, that meet the product performance requirements, certainly make a cost-effective solution, however,  a designer may face challenges while packaging this antenna in an extremely tight design. The rigidity of the design may further affect the antenna performance. In such situations, a custom-designed antenna makes an ideal choice to ensure superior performance. Another important factor of consideration while selecting an IoT antenna is the regulatory standards in various regions across the world. Developers should keep a check on standards such as Radio Equipment Directive (RED), Electromagnetic Compliance, FCC Class A and B Rules in addition to the SAR requirements.

In short, the key parameters to consider during the selection of an antenna are,

• Type of antenna
• Operating frequency band
• Coverage / Range and FoV
• Radiation pattern
• Gain of Antenna
• Shape and size of antenna
• Cost

A few design keys for antenna placement in an IoT device

The selection of the right antenna is crucial in a design, however, that alone will not provide a solution for high RF performance. It is imperative here to state that, the IoT antenna performance is a key factor that decides the battery life of the device. Factors such as the closeness of other electronic components, use of a ground plane, signal interference, packaging material and proximity to a human body (Know more about the impact of the human body on antennas in a blog on Wearable Antennas) greatly influence antenna performance. Hence, developers must pay utmost attention to these factors during the process of design.

Here are a few design keys to antenna placement in a wireless IoT design,

• Place antenna in a corner of the PCB to ensure adequate keep out area for the antenna on the PCB
• Use a ground plane of ideal width and ground clearance for achieving maximum antenna efficiency
• Avoid placing the antenna nearby plastic (Plastic ID) during packaging. The higher dielectric constant of plastic compared to air may affect the resonant frequency of the antenna
• Antennas must not be covered by a metallic enclosure
• Antenna orientation should match the orientation of the end product to ensure maximum radiation in the desired direction.

Conclusion

Ultra-compact, high-gain, super-efficient antennas are revolutionizing the way wireless IoT devices are designed and developed. Nevertheless, IoT antenna design or the selection of the right antenna type remain one of the key design challenges. A great antenna ensures superior performance, great range and low power consumption. Though a wide range of off-the-shelf antennas are available in frequencies suitable to IoT applications, developers may have to look at custom antenna designs to achieve optimum size and performance parameters.

Designers should also be aware of the effect of other components in the design, Industrial Design (ID), ID material, antenna tuning, positioning and EMI/EMC regulations among others. With over two decades of experience designing embedded products featuring technologies such as Bluetooth, RFID, NFC and LoRa to multi-band GSM, 3G, 4G/LTE, Wi-Fi and UWB systems, Mistral has the expertise to provide antenna designs that cater to myriad product needs.

Write to us to learn more about custom IoT antenna design, the selection and integration of antenna suitable for small form-factor IoT devices.

According to a study conducted by IEEE, by 2040, three of every four vehicles will be autonomous. While most of the major players’ focus is on Autonomous passenger vehicles or semi-autonomous vehicles, there is a huge void in utilizing the relevant technologies for security and surveillance applications.

The article unreels various open-source tools and technologies that come handy while designing a cost-effective and reliable unmanned ground vehicle or an Autonomous Navigation Vehicle Design based on an electric platform, conforming to various safety standards and ruggedness needs of the vehicle. Here the focus is on building a multi-terrain vehicle rather than a design that suits just roads. The article also discusses about the surveillance payload that can be integrated into this vehicle.

What is an Unmanned Ground Vehicle [UGV]?

A simple definition for UGV or an Autonomous Navigation Vehicle Design is a ground vehicle that can runs independent of a human operator. It uses a set of sensors to observe and cognize the environment around it, while various drive by wire actuators and motors perform the operational part.

SOFTWARE FOR UGV

This section outlines how to build a high-quality software package using various open-source software tools in the market.

ROS: Robot Operating System (ROS) is a flexible, opensource platform for developing Robot software. It provides several tools and support for various sensors, algorithms, visualization and simulation to develop a robust software. ROS allows developers to reuse various modules and build application use cases on Python, C++ and Java.

Maps and Navigation: Various open-source Maps and Navigation tools help to integrate dynamic maps in vehicle web application. It is very easy to customize the open-source platforms by accessing the APIs or using 3rd party libraries. Developers can also build a Web based GIS system and integrate it with the ROS, along with various algorithms to identify & define the path of the vehicle and turn by turn navigation support. There are open-source tools that provide free geospatial data, which help developers to generate and define a path for the vehicle.

LAMP: LAMP represents Linux, Apache, MySQL and PHP/Python – the four opensource components. LAMP is a reliable platform for developing an Autonomous vehicle web application. LAMP makes the developer’s life easy by minimising the programming efforts that a complex autonomous platform or a robot ask for.

Autonomous Navigation System Algorithms: Autonomous vehicles rely on navigation technologies, sensors and cameras to navigate through a terrain. Autonomous Navigation Algorithms help identify obstacles, avoid them, calculate best routes and define a new path for the vehicle by understanding the surroundings based on the data from various sensors. There are three important algorithms in Autonomous Navigation – Geo-localisation, Path Planning and Navigation.

HARDWARE FOR UGV

The vehicle platform is one of the key components of the UGV. An electric vehicle platform makes it suitable for an unmanned ground vehicle, as it helps surmount several mechanical customization challenges of a standard platform and allows easy access to vehicle network for obtaining data such as engine status, fuel status, gear level, clutch, and so on. Drive by Wire also known as X-by-wire is transforming vehicles. Drive by wire rely on electronics and various sensor inputs to control the vehicle operations such as steering, acceleration and braking.

Look at the various hardware components that constitute a UGV.

AC Motor: The prime concerns of an autonomous vehicle designer while considering an AC motor for the Unmanned Ground Vehicle or Autonomous Navigation System include torque, power and efficiency of the motor. While choosing the motor and evaluating the power requirements, a developer should consider its terrain of deployment.

Wheel Hub Motor: Hub Motors power each wheel and provide thrust and launch power to the vehicle. Integrating powerful Hub Motors to an autonomous vehicle make it efficient and capable for tough and demanding environments.

Steering Control: Another key component is the automatic lateral control of the vehicle. An EPAS (Electric Power Assisted Steering) system, with a Controller integrated into the steering column, in addition to the electric motor and a torque sensor is ideal for Autonomous vehicles. The EPAS Controller unit receives inputs from the computer, which in turn controls the Steering to achieve the desired lateral movement.

Braking: A Linear actuator based braking control system is ideal for service brakes and ACME based Linear Actuator for parking brakes. For electrics platforms, regen (re-generative) brakes have an advantage. They make use of the Kinetic Energy generated while braking and convert it back to stored energy in the vehicle battery.

Vehicle Communication Networks: The Vehicle Communication Network connects the in-vehicle electronics and devices as well as the vehicle itself to the external world using various technologies such as CAN, Ethernet, WIFI, Mesh Network, etc. A reliable and redundant communication network structure is key as it handles huge amount of high-speed data from several sensors and processors. A gigabit-speed network is ideal as it provides high-bandwidth, low-latency, and high-reliability links, paving the way to real-time autonomous operations.

SENSORS FOR UGV

An autonomous vehicle basically relies on GPS & IMU for localization and navigation, and the Perception Sensors to perceive surrounding environment. While GPS and IMU provides vehicle position, speed, directions, etc. sensors like Camera, Radar, LiDAR, etc. are very crucial to generate perception of the surrounding environment to facilitate in decision making.
Take a look at the Sensors that are key for an unmanned ground vehicle.

mmWave Radar: Radars provide crucial data for safe and reliable autonomous vehicle operations such as obstacle detection, proximity warnings and collision avoidance, lane departure warnings and adaptive cruise control, among others. One big advantage of Radars over other sensors is that they work accurately in any weather condition – viz., rainy, cloudy, foggy or dusty, or low-light, etc. In the recent past, 77GHz Radar Modules have been gaining popularity as they generate better object resolution and greater accuracy in velocity measurement. These modules come in ultra-compact form factor and provides superior processing power.

LiDAR: LiDAR helps in generating high-resolution 3-D maps of roads or target objects with detailed information of road features, vehicles, and other obstacles in the terrain. Using a LiDAR provides quick information of the objects and helps the autonomous vehicle to build a better perception of the surroundings.

Camera: Camera is probably one of the first sensors to have been deployed in vehicles for driver assistance applications. With the introduction of advanced image processing technologies and vision analytics, cameras have become one of the key sensors in any ADAS and Autonomous vehicles. Camera helps in object identification and classification, moreover, it provides depth perception of surrounding area including the position, distance and speed of objects.

Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors play a major role in obstacle avoidance. These sensors detect the distance to obstacles and assist in safe maneuvering. Ultrasonic sensors are comparatively economical and work perfectly in bad weather – lowlight conditions, fog, rain, snow, dust, etc.

GPS-INS: GPS aids in identifying the vehicle location accurately on the ground. In autonomous vehicles a highly accurate and precise GPS receiver system is required. The position errors should be contained within sub-centimeter or millimeter levels. The accuracy of the GPS system can be improved by combining GPS with an Inertial Navigation System (INS) and RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) base station which send periodic position correction messages to the GPS receivers.

Surveillance Payload For Autonomous Navigation Vehicle Design

Identifying the surveillance payload needs is critical to an Autonomous Surveillance vehicle. Based on the system requirement one can consider IR Cameras, PTZ cameras or a 3600 a bird-eye view cameras to survey the surroundings and communication systems, communication network, control consoles, etc. for command and control.

Teleoperator Console

Surveillance is never completely independent of human intelligence. There is always a human eye to it. The operator console acts like a command center and facilitates the gathering of surveillance intelligence. The console should be equipped with reliable, communication and control systems, wherein the operator can take a remote control of the vehicle at any point of time, control the surveillance payload, make an emergency announcement, start or stop the vehicle, and so on. The teleoperator console can be integrated to an existing command and control center or it can be a portable kit. The portable console should be lightweight, easily deployable and can be designed around a powerful Touch Panel that runs an intuitively designed Web application for configuring missions and teleoperating the vehicle.

eStop and Telemetry Data: In case of an emergency, a user should be able to shut the vehicle down remotely from the teleoperator console. An e-Stop feature helps the users to safeguard the vehicle, and its electronics from getting tampered or to protect it from an unexpected technical failure. A dedicated wireless network such as radio network in ISM or Non-ISM frequencies or a long-range Wi-Fi is recommended for implementing the eStop functionality.

CONCLUSION

A state-of-the-art Autonomous Navigation Vehicle Design or an Autonomous Surveillance Vehicle can be developed using the technologies discussed above. A rugged all-terrain autonomous vehicle can be deployed for a wide range of applications such as perimeter surveillance, 24×7 patrolling of critical infrastructure, first response vehicle in hostile environment, and more.

To realize an Autonomous Navigation Vehicle Design, product developers need to have experience in design, development and & integration of hardware, electrification, mechanical design, power management, various sensors & actuators, software, mechanical outfits and component selection ensuring high protection from shock and vibration. Knowledge of tools such as HTML5, CSS3, Python, MySQL, Bootstrap, jquery, ROS Kinetic and Melodic support will help the developers kickstart the project immediately. Knowledge on DBW Algorithms, navigation, obstacle avoidance, path planning and visualization provides an added advantage.

This Blog is a condensed version of the Article titled ‘How to get started with designing a cost-effective UGV for security and surveillance’ published on The Robot Report in November 2020

We live in a world driven by technology and use them in nearly every aspect of our daily lives. We tend to depend on smart electronic devices to make our lives easier, organised and better connected. Needless to say, all these electronic devices are designed over a Printed Circuit Board (PCB). PCB Design Services is a product design process involving high-level engineering tools for board design.

PCB Design is the point in a design stage at which all the design decisions made earlier come together and where unforeseen problems related to performance, power distribution analysis, signal integrity, thermal analysis and noise mismatching make themselves known and have to be resolved.

What is a PCB or printed circuit board?

Printed Circuit Board is a critical component in electronics that enables and integrates all the electronic circuits/components of a design. These boards are used in various electronic products – from Smartphones, Smart Tabs, Gaming Devices, Infotainment Systems to Medical devices, Industrial equipment, Automotive Electronics, Radars, Defense, Military and Aerospace equipment and all other computing systems.

Printed circuit boards were initially developed during World War II for military applications. Over the years, this technology was adopted by electronic manufacturers enabling them to offer cost-effective, compact, and power-efficient solutions.

The printed circuit board is made up of a thin layer of conducting material, usually copper films printed over a non-conducting layer known as substrate. These substrates are made up of special materials which do not conduct electricity. The most commonly used substrates are Resins, Fiberglass, Epoxy Glass, Metal Board, Flame retardant (UL94-V0, UL94-V1) and Polyimides.

Fundamentally PCBs are single layer, double layer, and multi-layer. The layer classification of Printed Circuit Boards is based on the number of conductive layers present in the PCB. The below figure shows the cross-section of various types of PCBs.

Typically, there are two different methods for mounting components on a Printed Circuit Board – through-hole and surface-mount. In the through-hole method, the components consist of thin leads that are pressed through tiny holes in the board on one side and soldered on the other side. The through-hole method is mostly used because of the mechanical stability it provides to the components. In the surface-mount method, the terminals of every component are soldered to the same surface of the Printed Circuit Board directly. Mostly surface-mounted components are small and have a tiny set of solderable pins or Ball Grid Array (BGA) on the component.

PCB Material Classifications

A PCB is broadly classified into three different categories:

1. Rigid PCB
2. Flex PCB
3. Rigid-Flex PCB

Let’s have a look at these categories in detail:

1. Rigid PCB

Rigid PCB, as the name suggests, is a solid, inflexible PCB which cannot be twisted or folded to fit into a specific mechanical enclosure. The Rigid PCB which is also known as the Standard PCB is made up of resin and glass along with copper foils which are generally known as Laminates. These laminates come with specific thicknesses to form a standard double-sided PCB, i.e., 0.4mm, 0.6mm, 0.8mm, 1.2mm, 1.6mm, 2.4mm, etc. Multiple sheets of these laminates are used along with pre-preg to form a multi-layer design.

Rigid PCBs are the cheapest PCBs. These are also known as the traditional PCBs and are more widely used in various electronic products. The best example of a rigid PCB is the computer motherboard. Some of the solid PCBs that we see in our daily lives are washing machine, refrigerator, telephones, and calculators.

A simple construction of the double-sided PCB and multi-layer PCB are shown below:

Benefits of Rigid Printed Circuit Boards:

• Cost-Effective solution
• Rugged and reliable
• High-density circuits

2. Flex PCB

As the name suggests, the Flex PCB is a flexible PCB that can either be folded or twisted to form a specific shape. The flexible nature of these PCBs helps in accommodating a complex PCB in a smaller form factor thereby reducing the product size. The clutters within a given frame, replacing a wires/cables with a simple flex PCB. The substrate in the Flex PCBs is made up of thin insulating polymer films or polyimides similar to the Rigid PCBs. The key objective of Flex PCBs is to improve the bend and make the product compact and flexible with a lesser layer count. The thickness of the copper foils and the polyimides are made thinner to achieve the flexibility of the product. . “The thinner the copper foil, much reliable is the Flex PCBs.” A Stiffener/Backer is attached to the Flex PCBs to prevent plate buckling and support for components.

Ideally, Flex PCBs are a great choice for designing PCBs of high speed and controlled impedance. These PCBs are widely used in aerospace, military, mobile communications, computers, digital cameras and more.

Benefits of Flex PCBs:

• Allows bending and folding to fit into an arbitrary shape
• The thin and lightweight enables a substantial reduction in packaging size
• Flexibility makes it easier for installation and service
• Effectively reduce the volume of the product
• Suitable for miniaturized and high-reliability electronic products.

3. Rigid-Flex PCBs

Rigid-flex PCBs are circuit boards that use a combination of both Rigid and Flexible board technologies in a given design. Typically, Rigid-Flex boards consist of multiple layers of Rigid and Flex on a PCB, that are interconnected within a 3D Space. This combination enables efficient space utilization as the flex part of the circuit can be bent or twisted to achieve the desired shape of the mechanical design.

Similar to the Rigid PCBs, standard FR4 layers merged along with polyimide layers, usually in the centre, are used to form a Rigid-Flex PCB. Rigid-Flex PCBs are most commonly found in devices were space/weight are major concerns, such as smartphones, digital cameras, USB, CT Scanners, Pacemakers, and automobiles.

Benefits of Rigid-flex PCBs:

• Rigid-Flex PCBs enable design freedom, space minimization, weight reduction, that will eventually reduce the packaging requirements significantly
• Integrates both rigid and flexible circuits to minimize interconnects
• Dynamic and flexible and fits into smaller spaces
• Suitable for high-density, miniaturized and high-reliability electronic products
• Flex circuits eliminate wire routing errors

So, there you have it. The basics of PCB and it’s classification. In the next blog, we will talk about the design and cost simplification. Till then, stay tuned!

If you’re looking for custom PCB Design services, board design or PCB Layout and Analysis services, drop an email to info@mistralsolutions.com

Installation and use of CCTV Cameras for security & surveillance is a no-brainer. Cameras are considered a fundamental commodity for setting up any surveillance infrastructure, but at the same time, 24×7 monitoring of hundreds or thousands of video feeds by operators doesn’t serve the purpose of providing proactive surveillance and quick response to breaches.

Software-based Video Content Analytics (VCA) provides a certain level of reprieve by raising real-time alerts for a few standard breaches like left baggage, motion detection, etc., but the in-accuracy and false-positives far outweighed the potential benefits, to an extent that most of the operators disable these analytics to avoid the innumerable false alarms.

With the advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Deep Neural Networks (DNN), VCA software is being trained to detect, identify, and distinguish various objects in video by exposing them to a large number of tagged examples. In addition to AI-based object classification, computer vision algorithms are also being used to extract data such as absolute speed and size, direction, colour, path, and area. This data can then be searched to concentrate the video analytics effort on relevant information.

In the last decade, with the availability of a significant amount of data and increased computational power, experts have been able to take the theoretical ideas of deep learning and put them to practical use, specifically in the domain of computer vision.

AI in Video Content Analytics

The objective of VCA software is to analyse the video stream, one frame at a time, and create a structured database of information out of the unstructured video data. The VCA engine accepts the raw video stream and converts it to a comprehensible format. It then processes the same using computer vision & deep learning technology. As part of this processing, it performs the following critical tasks:

• Object Detection
• Object Segmentation
• Object Tracking
• Object Recognition
• Object Classification

In addition to the above operations, the various object attributes like timestamp, colour, size are also extracted and saved as part of the metadata. Deep learning classification & recognition algorithms are used here to ensure higher accuracy. This metadata is then processed to perform various kind of analytics.

Face Detection, Recognition and Alert

Accurate face detection and recognition are very critical to law enforcement agencies. It helps in identifying people of interest and is also helpful in post-incident investigations. Broadly, some of the benefits of Facial Recognition application are:

• Automatic attendance
• Automatic recognition of authorized individuals or re-identification of unknown people
• Automatic alert for blacklisted/barred people or no-go zone breach
• Customizable MIS reports (alerts / movements / area-access / area-usage)

Precise face recognition rapidly pinpoints people of interest in real-time using digital images extracted from the video, external image sources and pre-defined watchlists.

Unique face features are extracted and coded into a feature vector that represents a specific face. This feature vector is stored in the database and is used to compare it to the watchlist when faces are searched for. With the advancement of AI-based deep learning algorithms, FR Systems can now be trained with DNN models with many sample faces. In addition, the advancement of GPU technology has ensured that facial recognition can be done at a large scale and in real-time.

Traffic and Road Safety

AI technology has enabled VCA applications to detect traffic violations accurately and automatically. The availability of a large set of video data and computational resources have enabled the respective DNN models to be trained effectively. Here are some of the VCA uses cases for Traffic & Road Safety:

• No-Helmet and Triple riding detection
• Wrong-way Driving or Illegal turn detection
• No-Parking violation detection
• License Plate Detection
• Stop-Line Crossing detection
• No-Seatbelt or Mobile Usage detection
• Over-Speeding Detection

Object Tracking

During post-incident analysis, object tracking facilitates tracking a vehicle in case of a hit-and-run or to track a person who may have left a suspicious package at the incident site. Using computer vision algorithms, once the object in a frame is detected and segmented, it can then be matched against a set of defined categories: a car, bike, truck, man/woman with a cap, jacket, or backpack, etc. The VCA software can be trained to identify these categories by using DNN models. Once the object of interest is detected and matched, the object segmentation defines the pixels used by the object and the movement of those pixels across the video frames can be tracked from multiple CCTV Cameras, thereby giving the entry/exit route of the object.

Video Forensics

AI-based deep learning can also help in solving crimes if captured on CCTV cameras. Machine learning techniques can be used for colour conversion, regeneration, and comparison between two video backgrounds, which will help forensic teams to identify vehicles or objects during the post-incident investigation.

AI-based machine learning algorithms can help in other forensic activities such as:

• Vehicle model detection
• 3D face reconstruction
• Video enhancement by Image Super-resolution
• Video De-hazing and noise reduction
• License Plate De-hazing
• Predictive Image searching

Conclusion

Artificial Intelligence is the next evolution in Video Analytics. Owing to the advent of high-performance GPU hardware, Deep learning-based AI techniques are being widely adopted by various VCA software OEMs. This improves the detection accuracy without increasing the hardware cost exponentially. For end-users, it greatly reduces the workload of security staff and brings significant benefits by detecting unusual incidents and solving a lot of video forensic problems. Moreover, it enables them to use the massive amount of CCTV video data generated for system training purpose instead of getting overwritten over a period. In future, the quality of detection will continue to improve thereby improving the adoption of AI in Security and Surveillance.

This blog is a condensed version of the article titled “Role of Artificial Intelligence” published on “Security Link India”

An IoT testing process aids in checking the functionality of connected IOT devices. With the increasing acceptance of IoT devices there is an increasing need to deliver better and faster services. In this article, we will cover the various IoT types of Testing required to test connected IoT devices. 

Internet of Things (IoT) as we all know is an ecosystem of systems, sensors and devices which are connected over a network enabling communication among them. IoT devices not only include computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, but all the devices that incorporate chips that can connect to the internet to communicate and gather information. IoT is a platform which allows users to manage data and control the connected devices remotely. According to Gartner, approximately 8.4 billion things were connected in 2017, and the figure is expected to rise to 20.4 billion things by 2020. And, according to IDC, there will be 41.6 billion connected IoT devices, or “things,” generating 79.4 zettabytes (ZB) of data in 2025. The range of existing and potential Internet of Things devices is enormous. With the current focus on smart cities, smart homes, and smart gadgets, it is expected that people, businesses, and the government will be tremendously impacted by IoT. Enroute to integrating more than 20+ billion devices into various verticals such as Agriculture, healthcare, smart homes, manufacturing, retail, etc., within the next few years, IoT development is expected to increase the scope of Internet of Things testing significantly. As the number of connected devices increases the challenges for software developers and testers also increases; so does the need for a defined IoT Testing Process. It is also expected that the smart devices such as coffee machine, toasters, toys, washing machine, automated smart doors, refrigerators, smart switches, and many others will be connected to the network and communicated via smartphones. All of these devices are enabled with either via Bluetooth, WiFi, RFID or Z-Wave to connect with each other seamlessly. Here are a couple of scenarios on how IoT could change your life:

Example 1 – When you return from a jog and park your bicycle in the garage, the sensors available inside the garage detects the opening of the door and sends a notification to turn on a coffee maker and microwave via IoT.

Example 2 – On parking your car in the allocated area of office space, the sensor sends the notification through IoT to turn on the air conditioner, cabin lights and enables a perfect start of the day.

IoT Testing Process helps to check the functionality of connected IOT devices. It helps to evaluate whether the IoT devices and software developed meet the accepted quality standards and perform as expected. It include a series of tests that help in validating the functionality, performance and security of the devices and the software in the IoT system. With the increasing acceptance of IoT there is an increasing need to deliver better and faster services. The thrust is to provide greater insight and control, over various interconnected IOT devices. Hence, IoT testing process is important and critical for development of IoT enabled Devices.

IoT Testing Process

In this article, we will cover some of the steps required to test connected devices. Before releasing any product in the market, it is of utmost importance to test the function of all devices according to the standards set for it. IoT systems, taking up the center stage in the consumer space, have to go through many important phases of testing. The IoT testing for a product can vary based on the system/architecture involved. The IoT Testing process broadly revolves around Security, Analytics, Device, Networks, Processors, Operating Systems, Platforms and Standards. IoT product testers should concentrate more on the Test-As-A-User [TAAS] approach rather than following an IoT Testing process based on the requirements. Listed below are few components of the IoT testing process.

1. End-user application testing

It is essential to ensure that all the connected devices such as smartwatches, automated doors, vending machines, industrial robots, etc., work seamlessly to provide a gratifying user experience. With a myriad of devices connected through the internet of things, usability testing becomes at most important.

2. Security Testing

This is the top priority area in IoT testing process as all the devices are provided with IP addresses and can transfer data over the network. The spread of the IoT has been a boon for hackers who can easily target these devices. Hence, it is crucial to test all the devices to eliminate vulnerabilities and maintain the integrity and security of data. The prime area of focus in security testing includes data protection, device identity and authentication, data encryption/decryption and data storage in the cloud.

3. Connectivity Testing

As all the devices in an IoT system are connected through the network, they must be available constantly and also ensure seamless connectivity with the user. There are chances of any of these connected devices going offline. Thus, it becomes crucial to check the behavior of the device during offline mode.  A warning message has to be sent to the end-user if the device is offline or does not have a unified communication with the user.

4. Performance Testing

IoT devices continuously generate a huge amount of data. Performance testing ensures that these devices can work seamlessly without any interruptions. IoT performance testing is a complex and time-consuming process that ensures the development of a robust IoT system. This IoT testing process involves testing of multiple components and endpoints, network communication, internal computation, timing analysis, load testing, data volume, velocity, variety, and accuracy and scalability.

5. Compatibility Testing

An IoT eco-system has a complex architecture as there are numerous devices which can be connected through it. All of these devices are configured with various hardware and software systems. This makes it important for a tester to perform a compatibility test between all the combinations of these connected devices to ensure seamless performance.

6. Pilot Testing

Verifying the IoT system before the full deployment of the system is important as it helps the tester in identifying defects in the early state. In this IoT testing process, the entire system or a single component is tested under real-world operating conditions to check if it is ready for full-scale implementation.

7. Regulatory/Compliance Testing

When it comes to IoT and IoT testing, regulatory and compliance challenges are likely to grow. In this IoT testing process, compliance of IoT applications for OFAC, HIPPA, GDPA, FDA, FCC, etc is determined. A regulatory test is done on the internal and external system to check if all the specified standards set by IEEE or W3C are met. The main objective of this test is to ensure that the system meets the standards, laws, policies, procedures, and guidelines after every development phase.

8. Upgrade Testing

All the Firmware, Hardware, OS, Devices used in the IoT systems will need to get upgraded as the technology advances. So, it becomes important for testers to perform a thorough regression testing of all the connected devices in real-time before releasing upgrades to the end-users, keeping all the above IoT testing process in mind.

9. Data Integrity Testing

Devices in the IoT system interact with each other and a lot of data exchange takes place. Hence, one of the aspects of the IoT testing process is to check the data integrity of IoT systems where the quality of data, accuracy, format, compatibility, and sanctity of data is tested. The data is validated from various devices, database, gateways and IoT servers.

Conclusion

IoT Testing can be different based on the system/architecture involved. An IoT system consists of Sensors, Applications, Network and Datacenters. Therefore, it becomes very important for the Testing team to determine the various type of testing required to test different IoT elements. And, depending on the system or architecture involved, the IoT testing process approaches might vary. It is very important for a tester to test the system using a Test-As-A-User (TAAS) approach, rather than testing based on the defined requirement. Using a TAAS approach helps to deliver a bug-free solution with improved UX to the end-user. Mistral is a trusted IoT Service Provider, and over the past 27+ years, has offered a range of Internet of Things services to help you design and implement IoT device designs and IoT Gateway Devices to help realize your strategy. By ensuring interoperability, connectivity, scalability, and stability among various IoT components to form a healthy IoT ecosystem, Mistral, your IoT service provider offers a range of Internet of Things Services and IoT Testing  that shorten the time-to-market for our customers.

What makes passengers air travel interesting? Window seats? Delicious meals and snacks? Or a full-fledged In-flight Entertainment solutions? Today’s generation of passengers crave for a great experience on-board which makes them feel satisfied and happy during their long-haul journey.

Today’s generation of passengers crave for a great experience on-board which makes them feel satisfied and happy during their long-haul journey. This is where in-flight entertainment  solutions play a significant role! IFE a key factor of the enjoyable passenger experience, is progressing as the technology advances. These advancements in technology have given birth to the era of “trickle-down in-flight entertainment” systems which has let airlines to provide benefits of premium entertainment content to their passengers. In-Flight Entertainment Design Services has evolved right from offering a traditional form of entertainment such as movie, music, radio for selected cabins to embedded seat-back In-flight Entertainment systems to every individual. IFE is one of the most exciting features in long-haul air travel, with most of the airlines equipping seats with seat-back screens or displays.

What is In-flight Entertainment (IFE)?

In-flight entertainment or IFE refers to the design & development of entertainment systems provided to airlines passengers. In-flight Entertainment Solutions can either be watching movies, entertainment channels, business, and news, listening to music or playing online games. in-flight entertainment also facilitate and provide a wealth of information that could be of benefit to passengers, like, information on the travel route, onboard menu and procedural guidelines and other informative inputs.

In-flight entertainment solutions have come a long way an occasional projector movie to sophisticated seat-back computers loaded with movies, games, maps, music and much more. IFE is often what gets many of us through the tiresome, long-haul flights. IFE services has been adopted by many airlines over the years and airlines are continuing to evolve & innovate new ways to keep the passengers entertained.

How has In-flight Entertainment industry evolved ?

The modern in-flight Entertainment solutions was born in the early ’60s when Trans World Airlines (TWA) installed a 16mm film system on a black and white TV monitors capable of holding the entire film, developed by David Flexer for the first time. Later, Avid Airlines product developed a pneumatic headset which was then absorbed by TWA. Throughout the early to mid-1960s, some in-flight movies were played back from videotape, using early compact transistorized videotape recorders, and played back on CRT monitors. These bulk-head displays in IFE systems were commonly placed in the aisles above the passenger seats after every few rows. More than twenty monitors were installed in an aircraft, and passengers viewed movies on this unique closed-circuit system. This was an era far before the days of solid-state circuit boards and light-weight systems. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer wide body aircraft, such as the Boeing 767. Some airlines upgraded the old film In-flight Entertainment solutions to the CRT-based systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s on some of their older wide bodies. In 1988, the Airvision company introduced the first in-seat audio/video on-demand systems using 2.7 inches LCD technology which were run by Northwest Airlines on its Boeing 747 fleet. It received overwhelmingly positive passenger reaction and as a result, it completely replaced the CRT technology.

Current In-flight Entertainment Solutions

The advancement in the Consumer electronics industry with smartphones and display technologies had made the display screens get thinner & lighter. This revolutionized the In-flight entertainment solutions and lead to the concept of personalized screens for each passenger. In the past decade, as Android became the mainstream of technology life, airlines and in-flight entertainment solutions OEMs started to migrate their IFE system to run on Android. According to Virgin America, “using Android makes the system easier to maintain and upgrade”. With Android-based in-flight entertainment solutions, passengers will be able to play games, watch movies, listen to music, order meals right from their comfort seat.

Many ODMs and product development companies offering In-flight Entertainment Design Services also provide support for USB ports, audio jacks, and a credit card reader. The current In-flight entertainment solutions consist of a crew control system, seat-back display units, the system and content server, satellite antenna, infrastructure components, the Wi-Fi in the aircraft, the data and power cabling and the wireless access points to link to passenger’s personal electronic devices.

Key design criteria for any in-flight entertainment system includes system safety, cost optimization, software reliability, hardware maintenance, and compatibility with user devices. The current decade’s innovations have focused on customizing In-flight Entertainment Solutions to suit passenger needs. A sharp trend shaping the travelers IFE experience is the option to plug-and-play with their own devices. The latest IFE systems with Android-based architectures are fully scalable and highly customizable. It enables passengers to make payments through secured apps, order services via apps and also enjoy a wide range of entertainment applications.

 Features of In-flight Entertainment Solutions

In-flight Entertainment Solutions can provide various features for different parties such as airline companies, cabin-crew members, and passengers. These features are enabled through software and hardware components. The In-flight Entertainment systems also create a dynamic link between passengers and crew members.

• Audio and Video in In-flight Entertainment

The next-generation In-flight Seat Video Display unit provides passengers with access to broadcast video programming, navigation through menus, browsing web pages and access to Video-on-Demand (VOD) and Audio-on-Demand (AoD). Some airlines provide personal televisions (PTVs) for every passenger with channels broadcasting new and classic films, as well as comedies, news, sports programming, documentaries, children’s shows, drama series, video games as part of the video entertainment system.

This can be customized for each passenger, who can watch the program of their interest on the Seat Video display unit. A passenger using the IFE system can also enhance the PTVs service by using subtitles of the running dialogue, along with the details of the characters. This special service helps viewers who have hearing difficulties. Furthermore, they can be written in a different language to help people who cannot understand the spoken dialogue.

• Air Maps

The air map in an in-flight entertainment solutions provides passengers with up- to- date information about their travel. It has become the most popular element of IFE systems, capturing passengers’ attention by posting live updates about their journey. In addition to displaying the position and direction of the plane, the map also displays the altitude, airspeed, outside temperature, travel distance travelled, elapsed time, and remaining time to give passengers the sense of movement.

• E-magazines

At the outset, all the airlines provided a free paper-version of a magazine to all their passengers which were placed at the seat-back. Most airlines are now distributing their magazines digitally via tablet and other software applications. These e-magazines are not limited to just text; they provide various information either in the form of video or images. Some airlines also provide e-books as a value-added feature to their systems. Using an electronic version of printed media can change their importance by adding interactive features such as e-commerce services where a passenger can choose his products and buy them instantaneously.

In-flight Entertainment Trends

The future and growth of In-flight entertainment Design Services depend on several factors. The need to enhance the passenger experience, technological developments and an increase in aircraft deliveries with advanced In-Flight Entertainment solutions are factors expected to drive the market. However, the regulatory framework and certification and an increase in the overall weight of aircraft are expected to restrain the growth of the market. The need for personalized entertainment has contributed to the increasing demand for In-Flight Entertainment design services. Various airlines are competing with one another to keep up with the continuously evolving expectations of passengers.

• Wireless In-flight Entertainment

Wireless IFE is a wireless content distribution system to passengers’ devices. The Wireless IFE systems are light-weight compares to the traditional conventional In-flight Entertainment Solutions. Most passengers favor their own devices for in-flight entertainment. Besides, the wireless IFE systems allow hassle-free internet access, browsing, video streaming, and more on passenger’s devices. Airlines are also jumping on the BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) bandwagon and replacing their existing In-Flight Entertainment solutions by turning passengers PEDs into a comprehensive entertainment solution.

• WiFi and Connectivity

Various airlines services have installed routers to provide free Wi-Fi to their passengers. In several aircraft, data communication via satellite system allows passengers to connect to live Internet from the individual IFE units or their laptops via the in-flight Wi-Fi access. Using Wi-Fi, passengers can access movies, music, games and other entertainment media from their own devices and enjoy their journey.

• Consumer VR

Most of the airlines and ODMs are now looking at IFE devices that offers Virtual Reality entertainment experience on-board where a passenger can just pop on the immersive glasses and watch movies or play games. These immersive headsets present a viable way of improving passenger comfort and satisfaction.

Conclusion

Technological advancements in consumer electronics have contributed to the development of advanced IFE systems to enhance the passenger experience. For instance, Virgin America is presently testing the new EcoV2 monitors developed by Panasonic. Various airlines are collaborating with In-flight Entertainment Solutions manufacturers to introduce jazz seat concept that offers several benefits such as improved touch sensors and display, integrated passenger control unit, and programmable attendant call buttons. With the increasing frequency of travel and the number of options available, the passenger will be more discerning in choosing an airline. Airlines will have to differentiate on the quality of experience they offer to passengers and IFE systems and in-flight entertainment design services will play a crucial role.

Passengers will expect the In-flight entertainment Solutions to provide them with the same experience as their smart devices. It is imperative for the suppliers of these systems to consistently innovate and keep pace with emerging technologies, to stay ahead. By combining creativity, technical expertise, and refined processes, Mistral offers cutting-edge embedded hardware and software design services or In-flight Entertainment Design Services, home/ automotive infotainment solutions to ODMs. Our in-flight entertainment design services keep up with the latest trends and include seat-back and portable IFE units that integrate audio, video, wireless technologies and DSP Algorithms and HMI paving the way for intelligent, connected in-flight entertainment solutions.

Overview

Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) act as a bridge between the Analog and Digital Domain. For years, these devices have remained the interface between analog and digital world. However, in higher Radio frequency (RF) range (Giga Hertz), the speed offered by ADC/DACs becomes a bottleneck.

The Traditional Approach – Heterodyne Conversion

Here’s a quick look into how an ADC/DAC is using in the traditional approach. An input RF signal is down converted to an Intermediate Frequency known as IF. The carrier wave is shifted to IF as an intermediate step by mixing the signal with a local oscillator. Once the signal is in IF range, simple analog circuits are used to filter, fine tune and amplify or attenuate the signal as required. Such processed analog signals are then taken to the digital world through ADC for digital signal processing.

Similarly, in Digital to Analog conversion, the processed signal data is taken from digital world to Analog world through DAC, and from IF to RF through UP Convertors. This approach is called Heterodyne Conversion (IF)

A typical Radio Receiver design based on Heterodyne Conversion (IF) is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

The modulated RF carrier is passed through a low-noise amplifier (LNA) and a band-pass filter (BPF) before converting to IF as shown in the Figure. After passing through anti-aliasing filter (AAF) the IF is digitized by ADC. Demodulation is carried out at baseband level.
The above approach is mostly due to the limitation of the conversion speed of ADCs. If we were to break the ADC speed barriers, would it be feasible to think of direct sampling?

Now, let’s look at the transmitter path for Heterodyne approach. Here, the baseband data is modulated in the digital domain & applied to DAC to convert to IF. The IF is upconverted to RF using a mixer & LO as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Direct Conversion or Zero IF

Direct Conversion or Zero IF is an alternate to Heterodyne (IF) approach of handling RF signals using High-speed RF ADCs. In this, the RF carrier is down-converted directly to baseband instead of IF. The RF carrier is converted to baseband (I&Q) using IQ mixer as shown in Figure 3. Two ADCs are used to digitize I&Q data. Here too, demodulation is carried out at baseband level.

Figure 3

RF ADC

New high-frequency ADCs known as RF ADCs can directly sample wideband signals beyond 6.0GHz. In addition, these RF ADCs have built-in signal processing capabilities. An RF system designer, using the latest RF ADC, needs to design only the hardware platform and use software to configure the hardware to suit the application. An RF ADC with signal processing capabilities is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4

Now, let’s look at the transmitter path. The baseband data is modulated in I&Q modulator and applied to two DACs, which is further upconverted to RF using IQ mixer and LO as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5

RF DAC

The high frequency DAC, known as RF DAC, can generate frequency up to 6GHz directly, thereby eliminating the need for IF to RF conversion. RF DAC includes signal processing as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

Conclusion

Zero IF systems reduce component count and complexity of the design and bring in a lot of advantages. The System Noise Factor is minimised, and the out-band RF blockers can be attenuated by the RF front-end filters. Overall Zero IF systems are compact and provide better performance. At the same time, since High-speed ADCs are new in the market and expensive, a cautious approach is required before finalising the design.

The trends for Zero IF systems are further moving towards System on Chip concept. High-speed ADCs and DACs integrated with programmable logic eliminate the need for complex digital interfaces between converters and digital circuit. Such devices can be placed with the antennas and digitally interfaced to the processing world.

Wearable Electronics Application Development is an evolving field that focuses on creating software and systems for wearable devices such as smartwatches, fitness trackers, and smart glasses.

Wearable Electronics are smart gadgets and/or accessories with specific functionalities and applications. Wearable Electronics devices focus on the efficient and brilliant use of internet, various sensors, trackers and latest communication technologies to design intelligent devices that enable or facilitate people in their daily professional and personal routine/activity by improving the productivity, efficiency and overall quality of their output. Wearable Electronics App Development is an evolving field that focuses on creating software and systems for wearable devices such as smartwatches, fitness trackers, and smart glasses. With wearable electronics app development, smart gadgets can be better integrated into people’s daily lives. These applications harness the capabilities of sensors, connectivity, and user interfaces embedded in wearables to provide a range of functionalities from health monitoring to augmented reality. Developers must consider unique challenges such as limited screen size, battery life, and the need for seamless integration with other devices and platforms. Wearable Electronics App Development are bringing these positive trends in the fields of Medical, Health/Fitness, Industrial, Consumer and entertainment sectors. Wearable electronics devices include but are not limited to Head Mounted Computers, AR/VR Glasses, Smart Watches, Fitness Trackers, and Smart Clothing. The earliest examples of wearable electronics technology and related Wearable Electronics Application Development are the spectacles and pocket watches that were invented centuries ago. With the advancement in technology, Internet of Things (IoT) and Ubiquitous Computing have combined to provide advanced high-performance gadgets that are capable of multitasking and communicate in real-time. Popular wearable devices that have made it to the market over the past decade include Google Glass, Apple watch, Samsung Galaxy Gear and Fitbit Health Bands. During this period, a larger interest and need for Wearable Computers, AR/VR Glasses have been fostering realizing tremendous opportunities in Industrial and Medical Applications.

With the need for intelligent solutions on-the-go, Wearable electronics technology and related Wearable Electronics App Development will observe massive developments in the near future, giving it an edge over other technologies among technology enthusiasts and product developers.

Wearable Electronics App Development

• Industrial: Wearable Electronics devices and Wearable Electronics Application Development are set to play a major role in an industrial environment, Head mounted computers and Intelligent Headsets that work as an accessory to Smartphone enables technicians and floor managers with greater efficiency, by providing hands-free operation along with instructions, maintenance schedules and inventory information in real-time. Wearables and Wearable Electronics App Development are thus becoming a key enablers in Industrial Floors, large Warehouses, Repair & Maintenance sectors saving time and millions of dollars for the Manufacturers. Such wearable devices play vital role in real-time information capture and gateway of information to the operator in the Industrial Internet-of-Things.
• Medical, Health and Fitness: Devices like Health Bands that come in the form of wristbands are one of the most sought-after smart gadgets for athletes and fitness conscious people, which help them track their heart rate, calories burnt during a work-out session, distance covered, etc. These devices are paired with user’s smartphone over Bluetooth to provide various health, fitness related updates to the user. Smart jewelries are another concept which is gaining popularity now a days. Smart bandages are some of the also being used in hospitals to take better care of patients. Wearable Smart Glasses with the appropriate Wearable Electronics App Development could become a quick enabler in the Medical industry, by assisting the practitioner to quickly access the complete history of a patient, previous medications, etc. and assisting during the surgery by enabling access to instruction videos and video calls to experts for real-time assistance.
• Infotainment: Wearable Electronics is extensively used in gaming and entertainment industry. Wearable Electronics App Development includes interactive augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) headsets, smart joysticks, smart goggles, etc.

Key Components in Wearable Electronics Application Development

MCUs and sensors [IMUs, Accelerometer, Gyroscope, Magnetometer, Barometric pressure, Ambient temperature, Heart rate monitor, Oximetry, Skin conductance, temperature, GPS] form the basic hardware of a typical wearable electronics device. Depending on the functionalities and features to be realized on the device, developers may include displays, pedometers, keypads, etc. Developers accustomed to designing applications for desktop and mobile OS environments will  have to relearn UI and UX.

Wearable Electronics tend to be much smaller, with smaller displays and fewer controls. Hence, Wearable Electronics Application Development need to keep specific UI and UX principles to keep in mind when developing apps like making it discernable “at a glance”, ensuring one-touch quick responses or voice commands, offer users only that information and interactions they absolutely need and making it minimalist.

Key Design considerations:

• Small Form Factor Hardware
• Battery and Power Management
• Thermal Management
• Interfaces and Connectivity
• Video Streaming
• Multi-sensor integration
• Size, Weight and Ergonomics
• Library/Algorithm Integration
• Wearable Electronics Application Development
• EMI/EMC Regulations

Wearable Electronics Designs and Wearable Electronics App Development must be user-centric, aesthetically pleasing, complying with environmental regulations and easily adoptable in real life scenario where in it can solve crucial problems.

Challenges and Risks

• Design: Packaging massive set of functionalities and features into these advanced devices require a lot of design thinking. User’s convenience and comfort is critical and this demands for high performance/features, longer operating time while ensuring low weight, compact size, thermally safe. It can be challenging for product engineers to design a device that is universally compatible and suitable for different body types. There is lack of a common standard.
• Privacy & Security: Securing the personal data of the user is one key aspect. These devices collect real-time data on health, user’s behavioral patterns, his preferences, etc. which needs to be secured against any kind of cyber threats.
• Health Risks: Wearable electronics technology poses health risks and hazards to certain extend due to constant radiation exposure. It is important to keep SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) in these devices to the lowest. At the same time, it is also essential that wearable electronic devices pass all mandatory safety, environmental standards.

Conclusion

Wearable Electronics Designs and Wearable Electronics Application Development company have invested considerable amount of time and effort in the R&D of futuristic wearable devices to understand the functional, technological and business needs of the modern-day devices. The ever-evolving embedded technologies have been successful in developing Small form factor, miniature, extended battery life, rugged and ergonomic, that are a key aspect of wearable designs. Wearable Electronics App Development along with IoT and AI is set to transform the current environment. The potential physical harm can be prevented through definition of standard, precautionary design and though testing measures.